The Encyclopaedia of Race and Ethnic Studies and Afghan Cultural Heritage and International Law

The Encyclopaedia of Race and Ethnic Studies and Afghan Cultural Heritage and International Law

     Following the reading of Encyclopaedia of Race and Ethnic Studies, it is apparent that human beings have a set of systems reinforcing their equality in the world. Growing up I have heard much talk of the United Nations and have studied it frequently. The United Nations remains as the ultimate source of power for global racial discrimination. It is derived from the United Nations that respect for race, sex, language, religion and gender is needed. The unfamiliar entity that I learned about in this reading was UNESCO, The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. Basically UNESCO is a branch from the United Nations. It is in my understanding that UNESCO aims to rid the discrimination in all aspects of life. It occurred to me as a shock how many times UNESCO modified its beliefs and publications throughout history. Each modification aimed to provide more and more democratic rights to individuals and equalize the playing field among individuals. UNESCO`s final publication entailed that all humans basically derive from the same nature, making them born with equal rights and equal dignity. It really satisfies me to know that people throughout history have been and always will continue to fight for individualistic rights. It makes me wonder if those people had not fought for liberation, what our society would be like. It is to organizations like such that individuals owe their gratitude and freedom to. Following the reading of Afghan Cultural Heritage and International Law, it becomes apparent what happens when individuals violate or disregard authorities such as The United Nations and UNESCO. This reading follows the aftermath of war and what it does to cultural items. As a result of war, cultural objects can be stolen, misplaced, ruined or destructed. This is truly a tragedy because traces of a civilization or remembrances of things past can be completely wiped out. Francioni and Lenzerini use the destruction of the Bamiyan Buddha’s to show exactly how artefacts of cultural importance can be obliterated through the ill acts of war.  

Gunn, T. Jeremy. “Shaping an Islamic Identity: Religion, Islamism, and the State in Central Asia.” & Hirschkind, Charles, and Saba Mahmood. “Feminism, the Taliban, and Politics of Counter-Insurgency.”

          After reading Gunn's article on Shaping Islamic Identity, it is clear that Islam has gone through many flourishing periods and many periods of decline. When Islam entered Central Asia in approximately the 17th century, it spread among the people and left a great impression on culture. During the Soviet Rule, many Islamic institutions were destroyed and burned down. Following this violent discourse, the Islamic culture suffered a series of lows. The Islamic culture began to decline among the people and almost became extinct. However, many of the matured people who were involved in the Islamic culture did not lose their Islamic heritage. It is known that Central Asia is divided into five states. The five different states suggest that the crux of the matter among Central Asians is trying to find an identity among a mix of different people. It is true that most people base their ethnic identity to their religious identity. The post- Soviet period deals with many stray individuals trying to find who they are as a person among this backdrop of chaos. 

Prior to any knowledge of the Islamic faith, when I heard "Islam" I always used to think of women whom are covered up by many layers of clothing. It is the common stereotype that Islamic women are controlled by their spouse and are under strict order and regulation. I used to believe that those women were stripped of their identity. Hirschkind's article was very interesting to me because I got to see how accurate or false my previous judgements were. Hirschkind follows the Feminist Majority's Campaign against the abuse of Afghan women. It becomes apparent that we do not know to the full extent how brutally these women are being treated. I believe these women deserve a life of freedom; Freedom from constraints of their superiors, and freedom from violence. Just as Gunn’s article stresses on the importance of finding an identity, I believe Islamic women deserve that chance. Their gender should not implicate their potential to find a unique identity for themselves.

Cosmopolitan Chang’an

Cosmopolitan Chang’an

Hansen, Valerie. Daily Life in the Capital & Schafer, Edward H. In Golden Peaches of Samarkand

The city of Chang’an was located at the end of the Silk Road. What is known of Chang’an’s history is the birth of the city during the Tang Dynasty. Following the reading of Daily Life in the Capital, I am confident enough to state that life in Chang’an was extremely unconventional and would be unfamiliar to the modern person. The city of Chang’an was divided into many different sectors and areas, which is quite relatable, however the unconventional characteristics arise when it is learnt that those communities were divided by barbed wires and fences. For security reasons, the city was divided and protected with gates that opened and closed at certain times throughout the day. In the evening, the gates remained locked and were guarded by soldiers on horseback. The streets were free from people roaming around because no one was permitted to walk after dark. To the modern person, this idea of what a city is and is made up of does not register as the norm. The modern person cannot relate to the daily life of a Chang’an person. This contrast between the Chang’an way of life and the modern way of life leads me to conclude how drastic society has developed. The Chang’an people were so well protected where as the modern society does not have curfews or gated communities with soldiers patrolling the parameters. Reading further on the city of Chang’an I was very surprised to know that there was a great deal of poetry surfacing during that era. Poetry was highly important in the education curriculum of the Chang’an system. Educated gentlemen took interest in writing and poetry which urged the outbreak of poetry writing. In Schafer’s, In Golden Peaches of Samarkand, it is noted that city of Chang’an was recognized as the new literary class for its achievements in the field of writing. All the successes of Chang’an pressed foreigners to inhabit its lands. The city of Chang’an was known as the “godly metropolis” for its commercial and educational triumphs and its beautiful landscapes.

I find it very intriguing that even though the tactics of Chang’an were very unconventional, the city still found a way to develop and excel commercially and educationally. Chang’an was popular enough to lure foreigners to inhabit land masses and start a new life. I originally had a preconceived notion that because the methods of Chang’an proved to be unconventional, the city did not operate functionally. However, following the readings of the scholars who state that Chang’an was a functioning city, I was wrong in my position. 

Buddhist Cave-Temples and the Cao Family at Mogao ku, Dunhuang

Buddhist Cave-Temples and the Cao Family at Mogao ku, Dunhuang- Ma, Shichang

                Prior to reading this article, I was unaware of the existence of The Moago Caves. Diving into a new spectrum of knowledge I can understand and appreciate the history surrounding these architectural masterpieces. During the 1060s through 1970s, the remains of these famous caves were discovered and much research began on discussing the dates and structures of the caves. Without an official published report on the Moago caves, it is necessary to look for knowledge of the architectural remains in the Cao family patronage. The Cao family is associated to the revelation of these Caves because of their economic dominance during their reign. The Cao family must be identified and awarded because it was their economic funds and support that allowed for the building of the caves. It is in my area of thought to note that this family was the ultimate source of power during their time because of their ability to create a worldwide phenomenon.

                China is an important location thoroughly mentioned throughout this article because it has the pleasure of holding the remains of the five Buddhist cave sites in the region of Dunhuang. Out of the five famous caves of Dunhuang, Moago Ku is the most widely recognized cave because of its incorporation of Buddhist art in China. Moago Ku is described as a treasure because of its unique attention to Buddhist art. The Moago Ku is recognized as a historical monumental site or a cultural heritage site because of the artwork and storage of the cultural relics of China. In the north-western China region the five most important sites include: the Moago Caves, the Eastern Thousand Buddha Caves, the Wugemiao Caves, the Western Thousand Buddha Caves and the Yulin Caves. I found it very impressive that these caves were built throughout the fifth to the fourteenth century. This means that the caves were built with strategy and expertise because they withstood many years of wars, battles and environmental implications. To my surprise, the Caves survived through ten successive Chinese dynasties. This bewilders me because when I think of the fifth century I do not associate that period with proper means of tools and necessary items that would allow for Caves to survive erosion and other degrading factors. I also do not associate that period with proper means of tools and intellectual thinking that would allow one to physically build a cave. I truly commend the peoples of this period because of their unexpected academic knowledge.

Following the reading for this week, I am satisfied in learning the history of the Caves of Dunhuang. It is has allowed me to recognize my miscalculation of people’s knowledge during the construction period. It is clear that although the Caves were constructed centuries ago, during different stages of civilization, humans were able to prosper and function according to their means. According to the needs of the people, the caves may have been built for shelter, strategy or storage. These people built the famous Caves of Dunhuang which we now are diving into the remains of. 

The Merchant Empire of the Sogdians, Judith A. Lerner

The Merchant Empire of the Sogdians

-Judith A. Lerner

Judith’s opening quote, “Men of Sogdiana have gone wherever profit is to be found” outlines the consensus of her piece. I feel that every reference she makes in The Merchant Empire of the Sogdians agrees to this statement. The 4^th and 7^th centuries marked the activities of the merchants mainly from the Sogdian’s, Iranian people from Central Asia. The Sogdian’s were constantly exposed to domination factors through the leadership of princes, powerful leaders and the domination of the nomads, the Turks. It is questionable whether the Sogdian’s were embedded in a feudal system or not. Lerner states that the Sogdian’s followed the feudal system but Marshak clearly states that the system was not feudal. In, Sogdians and their Homeland, Marshak states that merchants were positioned between the nobility and the working class based on their social and political significance. This idea makes more sense to me because it provides an explanation to the drive of the people of Sogdiana to accumulate profit. The greater the success the higher they are ranked. If it were a feudal system that they were immersed in, than it would not matter how much wealth they accumulate because the feudal system is based on one’s inheritance. This would not spark a large interest in the act of achieving one’s own wealth. The Sogdian’s exposure to domination must therefore lead to their desire for power. The Sogdian’s sought power in the accumulation of profit and wealth. The main source of economy for the Sogdian’s was agriculture. When agricultural trade did not generate as much wealth as they desired, the Sogdian’s used their geographical location to their advantage and made use of the rivers, the Amu Darya and the Syr Darya which allowed them to travel along in Silk Road practicing trade. It was interesting to read that from a young age, more specifically at age 5, a young boy is expected to read books and as he understand them, study commerce. This proves that at a young age, men in Sogdiana are exposed to the world of trade and profit. Children are taught at an early age to desire potential earnings from trade. The Sogdian’s therefore held superiority on the Silk Road because their society was deeply embedded in reliance to profit and money. Since trade allowed the Sogdian’s to interact with many different peoples, societies and cultures, they were exposed to many different and unfamiliar languages. The language barrier interfered with trading goods which therefore affects the amount of profit being consumed. In order to eliminate this problem, the Sogdian’s learned the Buddhist language and were able to translate Buddhist texts. This gave rise to another source of income, the translation of Buddhist texts. Sogdian’s learned how to trade efficiently and broke down many barriers they faced in order to trade with every culture. I believe that their ability to override each obstacle proves they were intellectual people whom educated themselves in the field of commerce and trade. The Sogdian’s allows for many new ideas to spread along the Silk Road. Referencing back to the quote Lerner opened with, the basis of Sogdian society was to attain a sufficient amount of profit. The Sogdian’s travelled along the rivers; embedded commerce into the education of young boy’s and broke down language barriers all in aim of acquiring capital. Men of this culture oriented their lives in order to achieve this one goal. 

In search of Longevity and Good Karma: Chinese Diplomatic Missions to Middle India in the 17th Century

In search of Longevity and Good Karma: Chinese Diplomatic Missions to Middle India in the 17^th Century

-Tansen Sen

In his piece, In search of Longevity and Good Karma, Tansen Sen focuses on China’s diplomatic correlation with ancient Indian Kingdoms. Sen offers attention on these interactions because he feels China’s neighbours are rarely mentioned and are missing from pieces of China’s history. Focusing on the basis of the happenings between China and India, Sen examines the chain of Tang missions to Middle India, specifically in the seventeenth century.

Sen’s argues that the Buddhist monks residing in China facilitated the bond between both China and India. The Buddhist monks living in China visited courts of important Indian Kings which sustained the ties diplomatic ties. By examining the famous Buddhist pilgrim, Xuanzang, Sen argues that individuals and their own personal motives also helped sustain the ties between China and India. Xuanzang established a pilgrimage to India which leads to his meeting with the Indian King. The meeting inhibited the Indian King to send an envoy to tang Chins. Throughout his adventures, Xuanzang collected Buddhist texts from Indian monasteries and brought them back to China. Xuanzang’s actions suggest he looked to integrate both countries. Sen also focuses on the third Tang mission to Middle India which brought Indian-life prolonging technology, knowledge and expertise to China. It was from India that China gained the skill of healing and medicine. Sen’s final reference to proving the integration between China and India remains in the military alliance of China and the Indian Kingdoms. Receiving threats from the Tibetans and Turks, the borders of China and India became allies in order to have a strong military front and protect their people.

Ultimately, in his piece, Sen is uncovering the missing pieces in Chinese history, where the ancient Kingdoms of India are found. Sen gives credit to the Indian Kingdoms by revealing their ties and influences to China. Sen accomplishes this by looking at the most validating interactions between China and India. I believe that Sen is trying to give the ancient Kingdoms of India recognition for their influences. I feel that because many pieces of history did not reference the Indian Kingdoms, Sen went against the norm of what historians studied and brought something new to the field of religious studies. What Sen brings to the field of religious studies is a new way to look at Chinese history in the seventeenth century. Sen also brings the histories of the ancient Indian Kingdoms to the surface for scholars to indulge themselves in. Instead of looking for histories that have already been examined, Sen went against the norm in a quest to uncover something that was missing from historical accounts. 

The New Nomad

Interaction and Interdependence of Nomadic and Sedentary Societies- Xinru Liu

When the term “nomad” is mentioned, the image that surfaces in my imagination is that of a barbaric, uncivilized being. The traditional vision of a nomad relates to my thought because from an early age we are taught to associate the word nomad to negative, inhumanly thoughts. Backing up this image of the nomad, television shows, movies and cartoons usually show a nomad character as a satirical and comical character. However, Xinru Liu attempts to shatter this tainted image of the nomad and brings about new positive characteristics. As an intellectual historian, Liu’s angle in this article is to show that those who were deemed nomadic actually had a significant influence on agricultural societies. Liu also attempts to prove that shockingly, there were more similarities than differences shared between these two groups of people.

Nomads were very helpful to agricultural societies in terms of their accessibilities. What startled me was the fact that nomads had better means of transportation and trading. The nomads urged to exchange goods and ideas with other peoples. Through interaction with agricultural neighbours, it is necessary to state that nomads played a significant role in the successes of the agricultural people. Liu states that both Indian and Chinese culture was established through the interactions of the nomads and the agricultural societies. Liu demonstrates her argument in the history of the Yuezhi- Kushan people whom first began as a tribe which later became the rulers of the agricultural trading empire. Liu states that the Kushan’s sculptures that were left behind after their regime did not differ in design, style or look from those of the Indian’s. The artworks that have been uncovered do not show many differences among the two categories of people. Using artwork as an example, she beings to diminish the fixed categories of nomad and sedentary. The nomads contributed greatly to the sedentary peoples. During the era of the Chariot Revolution, agricultural societies in need of horses obtained many from the nomads. So far we learned that nomads were than capable of interactions, suppliers of horses and trade, more accessible to transportation and beneficial to the needs of the sedentary people. Slowly the barbaric image starts to dissolve.

Liu’s final attempt to deconstruct the unpleasant position of the nomadic people concludes when she presents the idea that Yuezhi-Kushan culture was brought upon Chinese culture as a gradual penetration and not an invasion. This shakes the sour image of the nomad because it gives the impression that ancient peoples accepted nomads, when modern day people tend to scrutinize them. The fact that nomads had the ability to transform from a tribal group into ruling elite disregards every negative stereotype surrounding their people. In order to rule they must have been a group of determined, hard working, intelligent beings. Liu desired to show the nomad in a different realm of thinking. Through her article, Liu gave the nomad a history, a purpose and a freedom from corrupt views.